CRPG Inputs to Draft Climate Bill
CRPG Inputs to Draft Climate Bill
The Center for Regulation, Policy and Governance (CRPG) has released Policy Brief No. 01/2025, presenting comprehensive inputs for Indonesia's Draft Climate Law currently under study with the House of Representatives (DPR). This landmark document frames climate change as an existential crisis threatening Indonesia's territorial integrity and constitutional obligation to "protect the entire Indonesian nation and homeland."
Executive Summary
CRPG is collaborating with several DPR groups to mainstream climate change management through three strategic pathways: creating a specific Climate Change Management Law, gradually integrating adaptation and mitigation into sectoral laws, and maximizing DPR's oversight and budgetary functions in climate governance. This comprehensive approach aims to transform Indonesia's legal architecture to address what CRPG characterizes as an existential threat to the nation's survival.
The Existential Threat: Climate Impact Projections
Indonesia faces catastrophic climate risks across multiple dimensions that threaten not only economic prosperity but the very territorial integrity of the nation. The scientific projections paint a stark picture of the challenges ahead.
Environmental Impacts
The environmental consequences of climate change for Indonesia are severe and accelerating. Average temperatures are projected to increase by 0.8 to 1.4 degrees Celsius by the 2050s, while heat wave frequency will quadruple at 1.5 degrees Celsius of global warming. This temperature rise triggers cascading effects across Indonesia's vast archipelago. Rainfall patterns are shifting dramatically, with northern Indonesia experiencing approximately 25 percent increases in rainfall intensity while southern regions face 60 percent increases in drought frequency.
Sea level rise poses perhaps the most direct threat to Indonesia's territorial integrity. Sabang Island is experiencing sea level rise of 6.6 millimeters per year, while Jakarta faces catastrophic subsidence of 1 to 25 centimeters annually. Current projections indicate that 90 percent of North Jakarta will be below sea level by 2030. Even more alarming, between 92 and 115 of Indonesia's outermost islands face submersion by 2100, directly threatening the nation's maritime boundaries and sovereignty.
The biodiversity impacts are equally devastating. At 1.5 degrees Celsius of warming, Indonesia will experience 70 to 90 percent coral reef decline. Currently, 85 percent of the Coral Triangle's reefs are already under threat. Beyond biodiversity loss, climate change is accelerating the release of persistent organic pollutants into water systems, compounding environmental degradation.
Economic Impacts
The economic projections reveal potential catastrophic losses that could fundamentally alter Indonesia's development trajectory. Current models project a 4.4 percent GDP decline by 2050, escalating to 13.27 percent by 2100. In worst-case scenarios, GDP could contract by 40 percent by 2050. These aggregate figures mask severe sectoral disruptions that will ripple through the economy.
Agriculture faces production losses ranging from 5 to 20 percent, with losses already reaching Rp 19.94 trillion by 2024. Rice, soybean, and corn production face particular threats, endangering food security for the world's fourth most populous nation. The fisheries sector, contributing USD 26.9 billion annually to GDP and supporting 7 million jobs, faces existential disruption from ocean warming and acidification.
Infrastructure losses compound these sectoral impacts. Coastal cities face annual losses of USD 300 million, while vulnerable coastal areas are projected to expand to 18,480 square kilometers by 2045. This infrastructure degradation will require massive adaptation investments even as climate change erodes the fiscal capacity to fund them.
Social and Health Impacts
The human toll of climate change in Indonesia is already visible and accelerating. Between 2010 and 2021, Indonesia experienced 6.5 million new internal climate displacements. Floods alone displaced 4.2 million people between 2008 and 2021. Looking forward, 42 million Indonesians currently live less than 10 meters above sea level, making them vulnerable to the combined threats of sea level rise and storm surges.
Food security faces mounting pressures from reduced crop yields and freshwater scarcity. Vector-borne diseases are expanding their range, with dengue transmission projected to increase by 25 to 76 percent by 2050. Waterborne diseases are already reaching crisis levels in some regions, with 89 percent of water sources in Yogyakarta contaminated and 25 percent of children under five suffering from diarrhea. Heat stress from rising temperatures increases risks of heatstroke, dehydration, and malnutrition, particularly among vulnerable populations.
National Security Impacts
Climate change poses direct threats to Indonesia's national security and sovereignty. The loss of outermost islands threatens state sovereignty by potentially redrawing maritime boundaries and exclusive economic zones. Beyond territorial integrity, climate-induced GDP losses will severely pressure the state budget, forcing difficult trade-offs between defense, social welfare, and development spending. This fiscal squeeze occurs precisely when Indonesia may need increased capacity to manage climate-related security challenges including resource conflicts, migration pressures, and disaster response.
Seven Foundational Principles
The policy brief proposes seven core principles that should undergird Indonesia's Climate Law, each representing a fundamental shift in how the state approaches climate governance.
Stringent Due Diligence compels the state to apply the highest standards of care in every climate-related decision. This transforms climate consideration from a bureaucratic checkbox into an active obligation requiring comprehensive evaluation of all policies, programs, and projects. Critically, this includes mandatory social and gender impact assessment through direct consultation with women, indigenous communities, smallholder farmers, and vulnerable groups. This participatory approach aims to prevent maladaptation where climate responses inadvertently harm the communities they intend to protect.
Climate Justice, Equality, and Intergenerational Justice recognizes that climate impacts disproportionately burden the poorest segments of society and future generations who bear no responsibility for historical emissions. In a striking legal innovation, CRPG proposes granting legal standing to unborn generations to challenge today's climate policies in court. This mechanism acknowledges that current development decisions impose the heaviest burdens on those with the least voice in policymaking—the poor today and all generations tomorrow.
Environmental Sustainability reaffirms the constitutional mandate that economic development must not sacrifice ecological integrity. CRPG frames this not as an environmental preference but as a prerequisite for national survival. In an archipelagic nation dependent on marine resources, coral reefs, and coastal ecosystems, environmental degradation directly threatens economic viability and territorial integrity.
Science-Based Knowledge and Indigenous Knowledge requires the National Climate Authority to integrate traditional knowledge of Indigenous Peoples as an epistemological basis for climate policy alongside Western scientific approaches. This principle recognizes that Indonesia's indigenous communities have sustainably managed tropical ecosystems for thousands of years, developing sophisticated understanding of local climate patterns, biodiversity, and ecosystem management. Dismissing this knowledge in favor of exclusively technocratic approaches would squander invaluable insights while marginalizing communities who may be most affected by climate change.
State Responsibility affirms that climate change management is not a political choice but a constitutional obligation. The state cannot hide behind arguments of sovereignty or economic development to ignore the climate crisis threatening Indonesia's territorial integrity and constitutional mandate to protect the homeland. This principle transforms climate action from discretionary policy to binding legal duty, with corresponding accountability mechanisms.
Systemic Integration recognizes that sectoral and fragmented approaches cannot respond to climate complexity. Climate change does not respect ministerial jurisdictions or administrative boundaries. Effective response demands a whole-of-government approach that transcends ministerial silos, different government levels, and disciplinary boundaries. This principle mandates institutional structures capable of coordinating action across the entire apparatus of state.
Adaptive Management acknowledges the unprecedented uncertainty and rapid change characterizing the global climate system. Traditional legal frameworks assume relatively stable environmental parameters and linear change. Climate change shatters these assumptions, demanding that legal, financial, and planning systems become adaptive. This has profound implications for discretionary authority, accountability, and legal certainty. Adaptive management requires granting authorities flexibility to respond to emerging science while maintaining clear principles and robust accountability.
Key Policy Recommendations
1. Binding GHG Reduction Targets
GHG reduction targets must be aligned with the National Medium-Term Development Plan (RPJMN) cycle to ensure mitigation and adaptation targets form the basis of all development planning rather than aspirational documents disconnected from budgeting and implementation. Net-Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions transforms from political aspiration to binding legal obligation. The Climate Law should adopt the Paris Agreement's ratchet mechanism, which prohibits target regression while allowing acceleration based on technological developments. This one-way mechanism prevents backsliding while encouraging ambition.
2. Integrated Planning System: Climate Change Management Plan (RPPI)
The Climate Change Management Plan (RPPI) represents a paradigm shift from sectoral fragmentation to systemic integration. RPPI integrates mitigation and adaptation into a single coherent framework using a systemic approach that recognizes the deep interconnectedness between sectors and government levels. A tiered system cascades from national to district and city levels, ensuring vertical coherence while allowing adaptation to local context.
The system integrates greenhouse gas inventory with vulnerability mapping to create a complete decision-making database. The inventory methodology covers five main sectors: agriculture, forestry, peatlands, and other land uses (AFOLU), energy, industrial processes, waste, and other activities. This comprehensive approach uses annual activity data and locally-appropriate emission factors to produce accurate, actionable intelligence for policymakers at all levels.
3. National Climate Authority
CRPG proposes establishing a National Climate Authority as an institution under and directly responsible to the President. This institutional positioning represents a careful balance between independence and integration. The Authority's structure consists of an Expert Council providing technical guidance and an Executive Unit led by a Head and Deputy Head who manage day-to-day operations.
The Authority wields recommendation power rather than direct regulatory authority. When ministries or agencies fail to act on Authority recommendations, those recommendations must be reported to the President and published publicly. This creates political pressure for compliance while preserving ministerial accountability. The Authority also manages the National Climate Change Fund, mobilizing domestic and international financing for climate action.
This design rationale deserves emphasis. Rather than complete independence, which would involve protracted political battles over appointment and oversight, the Authority binds the President through law while providing implementation flexibility. The Authority assists in integration and evaluation rather than attempting to supplant existing ministries, reducing institutional resistance while ensuring coordinated action.
4. Nature-Based Solutions and Economic Valuation of Ecosystems
The Climate Law prioritizes five ecosystems—mangroves, peatlands, coral reefs, watersheds, and urban green open spaces—for protection and integration as valued national assets. Economic valuation transforms these ecosystems from abstract environmental goods into quantified assets, creating strong economic incentives for conservation while providing an objective basis for development decisions that currently treat ecosystem destruction as costless.
The law establishes a key obligation to prioritize nature-based solutions before conventional infrastructure, operationalizing the sustainability principle. Strengthened payment for ecosystem services mechanisms and fiscal incentives transform ecosystems from "public goods" vulnerable to tragedy of the commons into state or indigenous and local community assets for sustainable management. This reframing aligns economic incentives with ecological sustainability.
5. Adaptation Priorities for an Archipelagic State
The Climate Bill explicitly prioritizes adaptation equal to mitigation, recognizing Indonesia's particular vulnerabilities as an archipelagic nation. Five priority sectors receive specific strategies tailored to Indonesia's context. Food and agriculture must transition to climate-smart agriculture that maintains productivity despite changing rainfall patterns and temperature stress. Water resources require integrated watershed management that balances competing demands while building resilience to both drought and flooding.
Marine and coastal areas demand integrated coastal zone management with particular emphasis on blue carbon ecosystem protection. Mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes sequester carbon while providing natural storm barriers and nursery habitat for fisheries. The health sector must build climate-related health system preparedness, anticipating shifting disease vectors and heat-related illness. Critical infrastructure requires climate-resilient design that anticipates future climate conditions rather than optimizing for historical patterns.
Community-based adaptation must be implemented as the primary approach in local-level planning, recognizing that climate impacts are highly uneven and require contextual responses. The National Climate Authority must integrate indigenous traditional knowledge with science-based knowledge, drawing on centuries of accumulated wisdom about local ecosystems and climate patterns.
A critical warning about trade-offs demands attention. Adaptation programs can have perverse mitigation implications. Dam construction for green energy or flood control can increase methane production from submerged vegetation and altered water flow. Conversely, battery and electric vehicle production promoted as mitigation could threaten local adaptation capacity through water source destruction and biodiversity loss from mining operations. Every major initiative must undergo rigorous due diligence to identify such trade-offs and develop strategies to minimize conflicts between adaptation and mitigation.
6. Comprehensive Carbon Economic Instruments
Carbon Economic Value regulation adopts mechanisms from existing Presidential Regulation including carbon trading, performance-based payments, carbon levies, and space for innovative mechanisms yet to be developed. Full integration with international standards and carbon markets ensures Indonesia maximizes economic benefits of national carbon assets, learning from experiences of the EU Emissions Trading System and California Cap-and-Trade Program.
The National Carbon Budget establishes binding emissions limits for each five-year period, allocated sectorally with specific targets for each ministry. This approach, adopted from the UK Carbon Budgets framework, provides a clear and predictable emissions trajectory for business planning while ensuring accountability. Aligning the carbon budget with the RPJMN cycle ensures greenhouse gas emissions are internalized in all development decisions from the outset rather than treated as an afterthought or "add-on" to planning already completed.
7. Corporate Transparency and Accountability
CRPG proposes obligations for large-scale corporations and all financial service institutions to prepare and publish annual reports on climate-related risks and opportunities, adopting the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD) framework as the standard. Experiences from France and the United Kingdom demonstrate that transparency obligations encourage internalization of climate risks in business decisions, even before regulatory penalties apply.
For the financial sector specifically, climate risk management requires annual climate stress tests similar to financial stress tests conducted after the 2008 crisis. Financial institutions must develop low-carbon portfolio transition plans with measurable targets and timelines. They must report exposure to stranded assets—investments in fossil fuel infrastructure likely to lose value as the energy transition accelerates. Finally, they must allocate a minimum percentage of their portfolios to green economy sectors as defined by the National Green Taxonomy.
These provisions respond to recommendations from the Network for Greening the Financial System, which emphasizes the critical role of the financial sector in transitioning to a low-carbon economy. Without financial sector transformation, climate policy risks becoming mere aspiration disconnected from the capital flows that determine actual economic structure.
8. Legal Framework for Population Displacement Due to Climate Change
With 92 to 115 outermost islands threatened with submersion and 42 million people living less than 10 meters above sea level, Indonesia faces displacement challenges unprecedented in scale and complexity. The Climate Bill creates an anticipatory legal framework rather than waiting for crisis. This framework requires displacement projections for 5, 10, 25, and 50-year time horizons, mapping of migration-receiving areas with adequate capacity, and establishment of a Special Allocation Fund for Climate Displacement.
Displaced populations must receive four basic rights enforceable in law. First, protection and emergency humanitarian assistance during displacement events. Second, decent and sustainable resettlement rather than warehouse refugee camps. Third, restoration of livelihoods and productive assets so displaced persons can rebuild economic security. Fourth, access to basic services including education, healthcare, and infrastructure in new locations.
This approach recognizes climate displacement not as temporary disaster requiring humanitarian relief but as permanent transformation requiring structural solutions. Both receiving and sending regions must develop integrated plans within their Regional Climate Change Management Plans (RPPI Daerah), ensuring displacement doesn't create new social conflicts between displaced populations and receiving communities. The framework anticipates one of the 21st century's most profound humanitarian challenges rather than improvising responses during crisis.
9. Progressive Mechanisms for Access to Information, Participation, and Justice
The Climate Bill guarantees public rights to participate in decision-making and file lawsuits over government actions or omissions related to climate law implementation. Critically, this includes granting legal standing to act on behalf of future generations, operationalizing the intergenerational justice principle discussed earlier.
The right to information extends beyond annual reports to require proactive disclosure of climate risk assessment data, corporate emissions data, and adaptation and mitigation project progress. The National Climate Authority must build and manage an easily accessible public information portal, empowering citizens, journalists, and academics as independent watchdogs. Transparency transforms from bureaucratic obligation to enabling condition for public accountability.
Climate litigation provisions ensure courts can provide meaningful remedies. Reports of the National Climate Authority serve as prima facie evidence in court proceedings, reducing the evidentiary burden on public interest litigants. Courts must adopt flexible approaches to legal standing, recognizing the widespread and diffuse nature of climate damages that doesn't fit traditional tort frameworks requiring direct, particularized injury. Courts receive authority to issue orders for specific actions, revoke or revise inadequate policies, or even formulate recovery plans when government has failed its constitutional duties.
10. Transformation Towards an Adaptive Legal System
The Climate Law proposes a fundamental shift from rigid, rule-based legal systems to adaptive, principle-based systems. Traditional legal frameworks assume environmental stationarity—stable climate patterns, predictable flood levels, consistent growing seasons. Climate change shatters these assumptions, demanding legal systems that can adapt as rapidly as the climate itself changes.
The key distinction lies between principles and parameters. Principles remain non-negotiable, enshrined in law and subject to normal amendment procedures. These include the seven foundational principles discussed earlier. Parameters—specific emissions limits, vulnerability thresholds, adaptation targets—are regulated at lower levels where they can be rapidly adjusted in response to new scientific findings or changing conditions. This creates adaptive management through periodic review, institutional flexibility, and continuous learning from implementation experience.
The legal framework must integrate strengthened versions of existing environmental principles. The precautionary principle becomes more robust, requiring action in the face of uncertainty rather than demanding certainty before action. The polluter pays principle extends to climate liability, ensuring those responsible for emissions bear the costs of resulting damages. Most radically, the concept of rights of nature for critical ecosystems draws lessons from Ecuador's constitutional rights of nature and New Zealand's granting of legal personality to the Whanganui River. These innovations recognize that in the Anthropocene, effective environmental protection may require moving beyond frameworks that treat nature solely as property or resource.
11. Systemic Integration of Climate Education
The Climate Law establishes an obligation to integrate climate change material into formal education curriculum from primary through higher education as a long-term investment in climate resilience. This systemic integration aims to develop climate literacy, adaptation and mitigation skills, and sustainability values across an entire generation. Learning from Italy's mandatory climate education and New Zealand's climate change curriculum demonstrates that systemic integration can transform younger generation awareness and encourage behavioral change that ripples through families and communities.
Collaboration between the National Climate Authority and the ministry responsible for education becomes essential to develop standards and learning materials that are science-based yet appropriate to Indonesian local context. With Indonesia's large youth population and demographic bonus extending until 2030, investing in climate education represents a strategic opportunity to build a climate-resilient society over the long term. This generation will inherit the climate crisis; they deserve the knowledge and skills to address it.
12. Monitoring and Evaluation System
The monitoring and evaluation framework ensures accountability through measurable indicators and a tiered reporting mechanism. For adaptation specifically, four main indicators provide concrete metrics: measurable reduction in vulnerability, increased adaptive capacity, reduced economic losses from climate disasters, and increased ecosystem resilience. These indicators shift adaptation from aspirational narrative to quantifiable progress.
Parliamentary oversight links monitoring results from the National Climate Authority to the DPR's budgetary function through consideration in State Budget (APBN) discussions. This creates strong political incentives for achieving climate targets, adopting lessons from the UK Climate Change Act 2008 which has successfully bound successive governments to climate commitments through parliamentary accountability. Public release of the Authority's annual report increases transparency, enabling civil society to conduct independent oversight and advocacy based on objective performance data.
13. A Realistic and Just Transition Mechanism
Emphasis on just transition explicitly recognizes that climate action will profoundly impact 3 million workers in the fossil fuel sector, indigenous communities dependent on forest resources, smallholder farmers and fishers whose livelihoods depend on climate-vulnerable sectors, and other vulnerable groups. Without adequate support, these populations will bear unfair burdens of climate transition while receiving minimal benefits.
Support mechanisms must include a dedicated transition fund, comprehensive reskilling and upskilling programs to prepare workers for green economy jobs, expansion of the social safety net to support those unable to transition, and compensation for unavoidable losses where livelihoods cannot be preserved or replaced. Just transition is both a moral imperative and practical necessity—climate policy that ignores distributional consequences will face political resistance that could derail essential action.
14. Regulatory Harmonization and Coherence
No single sector remains unaffected by climate change, yet Indonesian law reflects decades of sectoral development with limited coordination. CRPG proposes harmonizing various existing laws and regulations with the Climate Law through a structured process. A two-year period allows comprehensive review of existing legal frameworks, while three years provides ministries and agencies time for necessary adjustments. This timeline provides adequate preparation time without sacrificing urgency.
The principle of lex specialis applies to climate targets, ensuring climate commitments cannot be negotiated away through conflicting sectoral regulations. When sectoral law conflicts with climate law on climate-related matters, climate law prevails. This legal hierarchy prevents the common problem where ambitious climate legislation becomes ineffective because sector ministries continue operating under older, conflicting mandates.
The National Climate Authority must work with the ministry of law to systematically identify inconsistencies, overlaps, and legal vacuums. This process requires developing a harmonization matrix that maps all relevant legal provisions and establishing clear revision priorities. Progress on legal harmonization must be reported to the President and public, ensuring accountability for what could otherwise become an endless bureaucratic process delaying implementation.
15. Indonesia's Leadership at Regional and Global Levels
Climate Bill enactment positions Indonesia as a climate leader in the ASEAN region and among developing countries more broadly. As the largest economy in Southeast Asia and a G20 member, Indonesia's leadership in climate legislation could accelerate climate action throughout ASEAN, creating regional momentum that no single smaller nation could achieve alone.
Explicit arrangements for regional cooperation on climate refugees and burden-sharing demonstrate Indonesia taking regional responsibility. This is highly relevant for ASEAN given shared land borders, transboundary river systems, and regional migration patterns. Climate displacement will not respect national borders; regional frameworks become essential.
The Climate Bill strengthens Indonesia's bargaining position in international negotiations by demonstrating credible domestic commitment. Countries with comprehensive legal frameworks can more effectively access international climate finance from both multilateral and bilateral sources. Transparency and accountability guaranteed by the Climate Bill increase investor confidence, helping mobilize the massive investment needed for low-carbon economy transition. Leadership brings not only prestige but material benefits in the form of technology transfer, capacity building, and financial flows.
16. Prevention of Regulatory Capture
Although climate change is a disaster for Indonesian society, the lawmaking process, implementing regulations, and many climate-related programs and activities create opportunities for regulatory capture by vested interests. Climate policy will allocate substantial resources, create winners and losers, and determine the fate of trillions in economic assets. Without safeguards, these high stakes invite corruption and capture.
The Climate Authority bears an obligation to provide periodic reports and conduct evaluations of climate-related programs across all ministries and institutions, creating horizontal accountability that transcends traditional ministerial silos. The entire policy-making and implementation series requires meaningful public involvement and transparency, not merely pro forma consultation. Critically, drafting of the Climate Bill itself requires robust public involvement with genuine opportunities for input, not predetermined outcomes with ceremonial participation. Regulatory capture often occurs during initial drafting when vested interests shape frameworks to serve private rather than public interest.
Conclusion
CRPG views climate disasters as a serious threat to the existence of the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia (NKRI). This is not rhetorical excess but sober assessment of the threats Indonesia faces. The Constitution obliges the state and government to do everything necessary to protect the Indonesian homeland. This constitutional duty acquires urgent meaning in the context of climate change.
Indonesia confronts the potential loss of outermost islands that define maritime boundaries, displacement of millions of coastal residents who will require resettlement, economic losses reaching 4.4 percent of GDP by 2050 with far higher losses possible, and mounting risks to food, water, and health security that threaten the basic welfare of the population. These are not distant possibilities but emerging realities already visible in current data.
A comprehensive and progressive legal architecture is needed so that the state and government can carry out their constitutional duty to protect the NKRI. Incrementalism and business-as-usual approaches are inadequate to the scale and urgency of the challenge. Through the Climate Change Management Bill, CRPG proposes multi-sectoral integration through a planning and evaluation system carried out by a National Climate Authority that is under and directly responsible to the President.
In accordance with Indonesia's Presidential system, the President is given broad authority to coordinate climate action across government. However, this authority is not unlimited but bound by various new principles and obligations within the Climate Bill. This represents a shift from discretionary climate policy to binding legal duty with corresponding accountability mechanisms.
CRPG hopes the Climate Bill can change the national development and economic paradigm to be oriented not only towards short-term economic growth but also towards long-term adaptation and resilience. The current development model assumes environmental stability and treats ecosystem degradation as an externality. Climate change reveals this model as obsolete and dangerous. Indonesia has the opportunity to pioneer a new development paradigm that integrates climate resilience from the outset, potentially offering lessons for the developing world facing similar challenges.
This policy brief will be revised according to input from various stakeholders and developments in scientific literature.
Download the Full Policy Brief
CRPG POLICY BRIEF NO. 01/2025
Facing Climate Disasters: Indonesia's Critical Need for a Climate Law
Authors: Mohamad Mova Al Afghani, Etheldreda (Chenny) Wongkar, M. Nur Sholikin, Dyah Paramita
Published: September 14, 2025
Pages: 26 pages
Supported by: Westminster Foundation for Democracy (WFD)
About CRPG
The Center for Regulation, Policy and Governance (CRPG) is a research center based at the Law Faculty of Ibn Khaldun University Bogor, dedicated to advancing evidence-based policy research on regulation and governance in Indonesia.
Location: Law Faculty Ibn Khaldun University Bogor, Jl. Sholeh Iskandar KM 1, Bogor, Indonesia
Website: https://crpg.info
The authors declare no conflict of interest in the writing of this Policy Brief.